Understanding ion-specific effects is a central theme of biology. But because ions are generally manipulated through the use of salts, the complication of 'ion confounding' is introduced. Ion ...

Control for confounding is crucial in causal observational studies. However, the modelling of continuous confounders has not received much attention. This is probably because in causal research the ...

Unmeasured confounding variables are a common problem in drawing causal inferences in observational studies. A theorem is given which in certain circumstances allows the researcher to draw conclusions ...